Exhibit written and curated by Joe Tache

Introduction

Black Americans have always had a complex relationship with their country. The years preceding, throughout, and after the American Revolution are largely remembered for the fervor of patriotism that was stirred up among American rebels at the time. This exhibit explores some of the ways in which that air of patriotism, combined with overt and institutionalized racism in pre-war and post-war America, and how it touched the lives of Black Bostonians in the era spanning from about 1770-1830. The exhibit is split into three sections: Pre-War, During War, and Post-War. The displays of Black patriotism are rooted in a desire for people to do right by themselves and/or their race. Thus, manifestations of Black patriotism changed throughout the course of the Revolutionary era, particularly when it became painfully clear that the battle for American freedom did not encompass Black American freedom.

Pre-War

Massachusetts debated slavery as early as 1646, but by the late-18th century, questions about the morality of slavery had taken significant space in the state’s public conscience. As talks of American liberation escalated in the late 1760s, so too did discussions of Black liberation. In 1773, a petition was submitted on behalf of “many slaves living in the town of Boston, and other towns in the province,” requesting that Thomas Hutchinson, the Governor of Massachusetts, grant them freedom. Even this 'progressive' motion was colored by undertones of racism, as one part of the petition stated that “some of the negroes are vicious.” Within the following year, two more petitions for freedom were submitted to Thomas Gage, Governor Hutchinson’s successor. Despite the petitions, slavery remained in Massachusetts, as both governors claimed to lack the authority to outlaw slavery in the state.

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Crispus Attucks is most well-known as the first casualty of The Boston Massacre in 1770. More importantly, Attucks organized the demonstration that led up to the massacre; a march down King Street (now State Street) to confront British soldiers. One book lauds Attucks for striking “the first blow for America's independence, thereby electrifying the colonies and putting quite a different phase upon their grievances,”. Despite Attucks’ sacrifice for the Revolution, in 1851, the Massachusetts Legislature rejected a petition to build a monument in his honor.

During War

Massachusetts set an early precedent for Black military participation, as enslaved Black men were enlisted to fight Native Americans as early as 1642. Thus, it should be no surprise that Black soldiers participated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord -- the earliest battles of the Revolution, which occurred not far from Boston in 1775. During these fights, both free and enslaved Black men were enlisted as Minutemen, a group that essentially served as the Revolution’s first responders.

Within two months after the Revolution’s opening battles, England positioned a large number of forces in Boston. Hoping to secure a strategic position in the area, the Continental Army fortified Bunker Hill, high ground just north of Boston (though they intended to fortify Breed’s Hill). British forces attacked the Continental Army on Bunker Hill, and although the British forces heavily outnumbered the rebels, they were repelled twice before the Continental forces ran out of ammo. At least seven known Black soldiers fought for the rebels in the battle, all of whom became pensioners by the end of the war. The most notable may be Peter Salem, who killed the British Major John Pitcairn.

At the conclusion of those three battles, there were debates about the morality of enlisting enslaved people in the Continental Army. Shortly thereafter, an appointed committee declared that only free Black men would be allowed to enlist in the army. As a result, a number of slaves were emancipated so they could enlist.

However, the enlistment of Black soldiers, free or not, was once again objected to, and a committee consisting of Benjamin Franklin, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Kench, and the Deputy Governors of Rhode Island and Connecticut met in October of 1775 to revisit the issue. After deliberation, the committee recommended that all Black men be excluded from the army, and General George Washington endorsed this recommendation.

Some Black Americans, as well as officers and soldiers who had served in desegregated regiments protested the ruling. The Black people of Boston and their allies saw Black army participation as an opportunity to “the intermingling of the races in the army” and thus create a stronger opportunity to “destroy slavery, and the inequality of rights among the Blacks and whites.”

However, the efficacy of excluding Black soldiers was challenged the following month by “Dunmore’s Proclamation.” John Murray, Earl of Dunmore and Royal Governor of Virginia, offered freedom to enslaved people “owned” by rebels, if they took arms against the Continental Army. Following the Proclamation, the Continental Army decided to ignore the exclusion decree and reenlist Black soldiers, a decision that was endorsed by Congress in January, 1776.

Interestingly, as the war progres decreased on the British side and increased on the American side. After Dunmore’s Proclamation, British General William Howe restricted the number of Black soldiers who could enlist with the loyalists. On the other side, while the Continental Army still only allowed free Black men to enlist, they became well-represented in the army, as they were the first to be selected in drafts, and in some states, drafted slave owners could send enslaved Black men as their substitutes. Robert Selig has an interesting reflection on Black patriotism of that time, as he notes that that the number of Black loyalist soldiers “is only a fraction of those who were willing to wear red coats-if only the British had let them. It is not that the Blacks were necessarily pro-British; first and foremost they were pro-Black, prepared to support the side that held out the greatest hope for them to improve their lot.”

It’s estimated that 5,000 free Black people fought for the Continental Armies and Navies throughout the war. Some enlisted in all-Black regiments, like the Bucks of America, which formed in Boston. Others in integrated regiments like the 15th Massachusetts Regiment.

In the midst of all of this, public opinion in Massachusetts swayed “so strongly in favor of the abolition of slavery, that, in some of the country towns, votes were passed in town meetings that they would have no slaves among them; and that they would not exact of the masters any bonds for the maintenance of liberated blacks, should they become incapable of supporting themselves.”

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Peter Salem became well-known after his successes at Concord and Bunker Hill.

Barzillai Lew was a musician for the 27th regiment, and later organized Lew’s Men -- an outfit of guerilla fighters.

Colonel Samuel Middleton led the acclaimed Bucks of America.

Richard Seavers began serving in the Continental Army at age 14, and continued his service until the end of the war. At one point during the revolution, Seavers was held prisoner by the British.

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Post-War

Many Black Revolutionary soldiers and abolitionist allies in Boston advocated for integrated regiments, in hopes that the increased interaction would foster greater anti-slavery sentiments. However, an unforeseen consequence of integrated regiments may be that fewer Black Revolutionary veterans received due recognition for their service and triumphs. The Bucks of America were among the few Black soldiers that received individualized commendation for their service. John Hancock presented them with an honorary flag, embroidered with his initials.

Of course, after the Revolution, not much changed for most Black Americans. During the early 1800s, Boston had a reputation for being more “tolerant” than most other northern cities and states, but it was rampant with harassment and discrimination nonetheless. Due to extreme segregation, Black Bostonians were highly concentrated in small geographical areas in the city, while few received adequate educational and/or employment opportunities. White young people would sometimes compound these struggles by attacking Black individuals in the Boston Common.

What followed was a fairly prominent wave of Black disenchantment in the city. Some Black folks retaliated to the aforementioned attacks, sparking unrest. Others spoke out against what they perceived as American hypocrisy: espoused ideals of freedom and liberty existing on the same plane as practiced bigotry and racism.

David Walker was one of the most prominent critics of American practices. Walker moved to Boston in the 1820s, and it is there that he published David Walker’s Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World -- a condemnation of slavery and “white Christianity,” and a rousing call to action and unity for oppressed people of color.

Colonel Middleton received recognition for his service during the war, and then resettled on Belknap Street (now Joy Street) in Boston. When a group of Black people were mocked by some young white boys while they held a festival, they decided to pick up weapons and resist their white antagonizers. The conflict occurred on Belknap Street, and at one point, Colonel Middleton exited his house with a gun in his hands, threatening to kill any white person who approached him. Eventually, Colonel Middleton was calmed by two other war veterans.

Richard Seavers may have had a similar experience during a riot on Beacon Hill, a neighborhood in Boston that was colloquially known at the time as “Nigger Hill.” Seavers is said to be one of the leaders of the riot, though many of the details of his life are difficult to clearly identify as fact or fiction.

Works Cited

"Bucks of America Flag." MHS Collections Online. Accessed November 29, 2016.

     http://www.masshist.org/database/788.

“Free Black Patriots.” PBS. Accessed November 29, 2016.

     http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part2/2p53.html.

Lipke, Alan Thomas. "The Strange Life And Stranger Afterlife Of King Dick including His

     Adventures in Haiti and Hollywood With Observations On The Construction Of Race, Class, Nationality, Gender, Slang Etymology And

     Religion." University of South Florida. January 2013. Accessed November 29, 2016. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/4530/.

Nell, William C. The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution. New York: Arno Press, 1968.

Selig, Robert A. "The Revolution's Black Soldiers." The Revolution's Black Soldiers. Accessed

     November 29, 2016. http://www.americanrevolution.org/blk.php.

"The David Walker Memorial Project." Accessed November 30, 2016.

     http://www.davidwalkermemorial.org/black-boston.  

Walker, David. "Walker's Appeal, in Four Articles." University of North Carolina. Accessed December 15, 2016.

     http://docsouth.unc.edu/nc/walker/menu.html

Wilkes, Laura E. Missing Pages in American History, Revealing the Services of Negroes in the

     Early Wars in the United States of America, 1641-1815. Washington, D.C.: Press of R.L. Pendleton, 1919.

Wilson, Joseph T. The Black Phalanx: A History of the Negro Soldiers of the United States in the

     War of 1775-1812, 1861-'65. Hartford, CT: American Pub., 1888.